An Analysis of University Funding, Mobility and Online Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany, France and Spain.

Written by Jaione González Yubero

This paper aims to provide a synthesis of the changes conducted by universities in three European countries (Germany, Spain and France) in their teaching methods and funding during the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown in Europe in March to June 2020. The aspects that are taken into account when analysing the challenges that these countries’ universities faced  are funding, mobility and online learning. This paper will use the term funding to refer to the economic assistance that governments provided to their respective public universities and  mobility to refer to the limitations that international students have encountered due to measures taken by authorities in their host countries and universities to tackle the pandemic. Special attention is also given to the impact of the pandemic on the Erasmus+ programme. To conclude each section, a brief account of students’ perception of the measures implemented by the universities and the relevant ministries of education has been provided.

1. Germany

Funding

In Germany, 86% of university funding comes from the government and the rest is provided by students’ tuition fees. In fact, since German students and those coming from EU member states do not pay any fees, 14% of the national budget for universities is added to by non-European students’ tuition fees which encourages the German university system to pay special attention to overseas students. This financial system has not been affected by the COVID-19 crisis: in April and May 2020, some German states contributed  additional money from their budget to university funding. In April, some states invested more than 110 million euros to help universities digitalise in order to face the challenges of the lockdown.^[1]

Moreover, the Federal Minister of Education and Research granted 650 euros in interest-free loans payable after 18 to 23 months to students in June 2020 until March 2021 as many student jobs were lost during the lockdown and particularlyinternational students, for whom economic hardship is a real and ever-present reality.^[2] This is particularly important since the German government wants Germany to remain an attractive destination for students.^[3] Students in emergency situations were also able to ask for non-repayable grants resulting in the ministry spending 100 million euros in this programme. Some students, however, were able to keep their jobs in student dormitories during the pandemic. This income did not reduce the amount of money they could receive from the government loan and, following this, 12% of students received grants.^[4]

With the closure of indoor and outdoor hospitality (perhaps one of the most common part-time jobs for students), many students lost their main source of income. Students who were studying abroad, students who were unemployed before the pandemic or who could not prove they had financial difficulties were not eligible.^[5]

Such issues have only been exacerbated for international students. Germany benefits from a great number of international students and the pandemic could see those numbers and, in turn, university funds dramatically decrease, as students may feel less inclined to study abroad for fear of another lockdown. The German Government’s measures try to help international students, by assisting them financially and implementing online classes on the largest information portal for foreign students in Germany Studying in Germany. The financial situation for international students is critically difficult in Germany since only 20% receive grants and many, therefore, depend on part-time jobs and their families’ money. According to a poll conducted by Studying in Germany, 90% of international students have encountered financial hardship because of the pandemic and subsequent lockdown.^[6] As a result of the pandemic, their situation was even more difficult due to the part-time job losses in Germany and the economic crisis affecting most world economies.^[7]

However, the German Academic Exchange service announced that international students on  a scholarship could postpone their scholarship start date. They could also start their online classes if their chosen university offered them or they could benefit from their scholarship in another country.^[8] Scholarship applications for the summer semester have been postponed due to the pandemic.^[9]

Mobility

Some  international students have been unable to stay in Germany for economic reasons or found it difficult to move there to start their studies. Financially, numerous international students are encountering various hardships. According to Kercher and Plasa,^[10] 40% of international students left Germany following the lockdown. For international students, the decision to go back to Germany largely depended on whether their university offered  online or hybrid courses.^[11]

On the other hand, the pandemic has also affected Erasmus+ and exchange students. As a result of travel restrictions necessitated by the pandemic, 8500 German students returned to Germany from their studies abroad. Following this, 30% of universities stated that they would not participate in any exchange programmes in 2020 while 22% of universities admitted that they would not participate at all in an exchange programme this year. Additionally, 65% of students cancelled their exchange programmes for the 2020-21 academic year. Most universities expected there to be little participation in exchange programmes over the winter semester in 2020 due to travel restrictions.^[12]  Nonetheless, Germany has kept the Erasmus+ grant available for students even if they end up staying in Germany. Some universities, such as those in Hamburg, are providing loans for international students who have seen their part-time job or source of income disappear. Furthermore, the European Union is providing more than 100 million euros to support the digitization of the Erasmus+ programme and the postponement of exchanges in order to keep the Erasmus+ going.^[13]

Online learning

Since the lockdown, the Federal German Ministry of Education and Research has encouraged and funded universities in the  transition to online learning. In some cases, this method is combined with face-to-face courses. At the start of the pandemic, universities had to develop online classes and materials. For this current academic year, most universities decided to continue their classes online. Nevertheless, in some German universities, exams are still happening face-to-face as well as classes that require laboratories or specialised facilities;^[14] it is up to the regions to decide this. The fact that most classes are happening online has caused the German Government to deny visas to foreign students who do not need to be in Germany to study. In an online survey conducted by Studying in Germany, 74.7% of foreign students stated that they were willing to participate in an online learning programme.^[15]

 

The aforementioned measures are considered to be successful by the international community of students. However, complaints about students not having good Internet access or a computer available are a reality even if 99% of German students are believed to hold a computer at home (see Graph 1).^[16]

Graph 1: Percentage of German students that have access to the Internet at home. Only 1% of German students were thought to lack access in 2018.

Source: Bond et al. (2018)

Students depending on grants or part-time jobs have seen their income disappear and this may have affected their learning capacity because their focus may not be on studying.^[17] Students that have been the most affected by the pandemic are:

• Those working in hospitality. According to Studying in Germany, the most common student jobs are in hospitality, retail or as academic assistants.^[18]
• Those with part-time jobs. A survey conducted by Forsa in 2020 showed that 75% of students in Germany had part-time jobs in 2020. A third of students are thought to work part-time as research assistants or are PhD students at university.
• More than a quarter of the students in the survey of Studying in Germany worked in offices. Others affected include: students working in tutoring (13%), students working in retail (12%) and students working in catering (11%).^[19]

The Conference of Universities stated that universities are allowed to conduct online exams and they can also do them from other places such as their home cities in order to avoid spreading the virus. They also state that non-successful examinations conducted in the summer semester of 2020 can be considered as not taken due to the difficulties in the sudden transition to a full online education.  To make this possible, the Ministry of Culture and Science provided 20 million euros and the necessary legal regulations to encourage digital courses. In addition, funds are being invested in technological infrastructure, hardware and software in order to improve the online learning resources. The ministry also created a legal framework to promote digital teaching as part of the “Corona emergency aid for digitalization in teaching and studies” programme.^[20] It promoted hybrid learning with face-to-face and online classes and the presence of first year students on campus was encouraged at the beginning of the winter semester.^[21]

The ESU (European Students’ Union) asked for:

• More training for students and teachers as well as supervision in order to deal with one of the biggest concerns in German society: privacy and data protection. Training  regarding online learning for both students and lecturers
• Increased social contact.
• Clarity concerning assessment methods and for international students to receive the same treatment as nationals regarding visas and COVID-19^[22]

Overall, students were pleased with the opportunities online learning had regarding communication between educational stakeholders within universities.^[23]

2. France

Funding

As with Germany, the French Ministry of Higher Education provided 10 million euros to deal with the situation in public universities brought about by the pandemic. This aid was directed towards food vouchers and to help improve student Internet access, particularly helping those who had lost their student jobs due to the lockdown. Moreover, the French Ministry, along with university-linked organisations (such as the CROUS-Centre régional des oeuvres universitaires et scolaires, that is, regional centre of university and school charity),^[24] have provided students with prepaid cards available for students that cannot purchase food.^[25] As in Germany, assistance is provided to students who have lost their job or internship due to the lockdown and to those who are not eligible for unemployment benefits.^[26] Particular attention has been paid to handicapped students and international students. What is more, students who had to leave their university accomodation in March did not have to pay the rent for university-owned accommodation and those working in dormitories kept their jobs during lockdown.^[27] Student grants were maintained and the dates for applying have not been altered.

Mobility

The pandemic, and more specifically, the March-May 2020 lockdown, strongly affected international mobility in French universities. Concerning international students, their residence cards were extended for three months so if their visa expired and they could not return home, they would still be allowed to stay in the country.^[28] The closure of borders may have hindered students’ ability to study in France or to participate in an exchange programme.^[29] There are fewer flights and there are difficulties regarding the distribution of visas. What is more, some exchange programmes have been cancelled.^[30] Students coming from non-EU countries – classified as zone rouge countries – need a specific certificate to enter France to state  that they do not have any COVID-19 symptoms. They also need to provide a contact and address in France to be contacted in case they were in close contact with someone who had the virus. On the other hand, 100 million euros have been provided to transform the Erasmus+ programme by encouraging digitalisation in universities.^[31]As in Germany, fewer students are participating in the Erasmus programme this year.^[32] University students leaving France to participate in an Erasmus programme decreased 20% this year (2021) and 18% in 2020 while  the number of international students decreased between 20% and 30% this academic year, 2020-2021.^[33]

Online learning

Helping students with their online classes is also a priority for the French Government. Assistance is provided for students lacking a computer or reliable Internet access. Universities have had to adapt to the new situation. Online learning is the preferred option by the French authorities but some universities are combining online learning with face-to-face classes. The French Minister of Higher Education has stated that universities with a high amount of international students should prioritise online classes. Moreover, courses that require the use of laboratories have allowed the presence of students so long as they respect social distancing . In any case, universities are given some autonomy in deciding on their own  modalities of teaching.^[34]

Graph 2: percentage of French students that cannot follow online classes in 2020-2021. It is estimated that there are around 50000 students reportedly disengaged with online learning , approximately 3% of French university students.

Graphs 2 and 3  show the percentage of students who claim that they lose concentration in online classes  and the proportion of students that are experiencing technological  problems. For the next academic year, France is encouraging a hybrid model of learning in universities: while some students are in class, others will follow along remotely.^[35]

 

The lockdown has prepared French universities for conducting online classes even if some of them already had an established online campus, for example, in Sorbonne University. Numerous complaints in October alerted the authorities to the fact that social distancing was not being respected in  lecture theatres or the university common areas.^[36]

Source: Haberbusch (2020)

Graph 3: percentage of university students with technical problems in France. Furthermore, 88% of students in the University of Paris do not have a microphone or a camera in their computers.

It is worth taking into account that not every student could follow online classes, some of them did not have access to a device or to the Internet. For instance, 69% of university students had the means to follow online classes during the pandemic. However, only 39% were satisfied with the received classes.^[37]

3. Spain

Funding

In Spain, the regional governments are the ones in charge of university funding while the national government provides the budget.^[38] Moreover, due to the pandemic, the “Fondo Supera COVID-19” was implemented by the Banco Santander, the Crue Spanish Universities and the “Centro Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas”, providing universities with 8.5 million euros. Of this, 2.5 million was given to strengthen the technological capacity of universities and to make sure that all students had access to a computer and the Internet.^[39] The Spanish Government focused most of its budget on the health and industry sectors, while leaving the education sector behind. This, however, is not surprising. Since  2017, Spain has spent less money from its budget on education than the average country in the OCDE. For example, this year, it spent 4.3% of its GDP in education. And yet, in 2019, the budget aimed at universities almost doubled from 3% to 5.9%. In addition, 150 million euros was provided to the university system by the Spanish Government.^[40]

Students benefiting from a national grant to pay for their university studies were able to keep their grants. During the national lockdown, the Spanish Government implemented the Minimum Living Allowance, a benefit to reduce the risk of poverty of individuals who do not possess the required economic resources to cover their basic needs. Students who have been denied the national grant to pay for their university fees but whose family receive the Minimum Living Allowance are exempt from paying for their university fees.^[41]

Grasset (2020) believes that one of the challenges faced by Spanish universities is attracting more international students. For this reason, the government needs to increase its funding. Funding would 1) improve the quality of universities, 2) help them to adopt protocols for health and safety and 3) foster flexible learning programmes.^[42] The “Fondo COVID” (a different fund to the one above-mentioned) was also implemented in August. This fund provided universities with 400 million euros, with university assistance 20% of this budget. This money is aimed to promote research, to improve the university infrastructure, technology and training aimed at professors. Nevertheless, the regions are in charge of distributing and spending the money based on their own funding: some do it depending on the number of students and some depending on the number of universities. Transparency regarding this matter is essential.^[43] Most of the regions have not decided yet how to spend it and some claim that the money provided is not enough. Universities with more students should receive more money according to the Minister of Universities, Manuel Castells. Grant programmes and research are at risk if not enough money is received.^[44] In addition, funds were not implemented when the academic year started and the universities had already spent a great amount of money in disinfecting university campuses and technology for online learning.^[45] Moreover, there were also a great number of students per class^[46] which was a great problem concerning social distancing.

Mobility

Spain is the preferred option for Erasmus+ students according to Peinado (2020). It is not, however, a popular destination for overseas students. The former  was expected to decrease between 20% and 60% this year, depending on the university.^[47] Spanish students participating in an Erasmus+ programme have also plummeted   with around half deciding not to study abroad this year.^[48] Spanish students report feeling anxious about blended learning as well as online learning that most European universities are offering and, therefore, around 60% have decided to stay in Spain. On the other hand, foreign students who do not receive any economic help from the Spanish Government could find it more difficult and less attractive to study this year in Spain. Aside from the Erasmus+ programme, which includes a grant from an individual’s home country’s government and the EU, students who are coming from non-European countries could find no financial support along with the challenges of   lockdown in Spain and difficulty working part-time.^[49]

Online learning

The Ministry of Universities recommended that in classrooms, social distancing between individuals needs to be at least 1.5 metres. If this condition is not respected, online learning or student rotation should be implemented so that students do not spend much time in the same environment with a lot of people, to reduce their chances of falling ill. However, half of their classes would still have to be online. Each university is in charge of implementing these measures.

Some degrees such as Geology or Chemistry need face-to-face classes, students need technological material and connection and teachers need training.^[50] Nevertheless, rotation of students and online classes seem to work as students are enjoying face-to-face classes.^[51] Seminars and study groups are allowed to meet face-to-face if social distancing is respected. Nevertheless, taking into account the current economic resources, the hiring of new teachers and the duplication of classes is not being contemplated by the ministry. These measures needed to be implemented ideally before the start of the next academic year.^[52]

One of the advised measures is the implementation of courses focused on online learning and technologies aimed at teachers.^[53] Adapted evaluation is also recommended. The Ministry also recommends that universities improve their technology implementation rate to tackle the digital divide.^[54] Graphs 4 and 5 show the use of the Internet among university students in Spain as well as their digital resources at home. Students’ digital equipment at home is a concern since some of them do not have access to good quality Internet, printers or scanners.^[55] Without a proper Internet connexion and a computer, online learning becomes virtually impossible and, therefore, the gap, between students who can afford a computer and a quick and efficient Internet connection and those students who cannot, widens. This is still a matter of concern for national countries as well as for the European Union since the inequalities among university students could increase and the gap between disadvantaged and advantaged students could also grow.

Graph 4: University students in Spain and their digital resources at home in 2020. 14,8% of students did not have resources.

Source: Rodicio-Garcia et al. (2020)

Graph 5: Percentage of university students and their frequency of their use of the Internet in Spain in 2019. 97,7% of students used the Internet weekly.

Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadística (2019)

Overall, some students claimed that they had benefited from online classes. They stressed their functionality and the fact that the classes have helped them to be more organised.^[56] However, there is a general fear that online classes will encourage elitism and negatively impact disadvantaged students. Students oppose paying the entirety of the fees while having a semi face-to-face model. To this end, the Spanish government froze public university fees for the 2020-2021 academic year and reduced their cost for the new few years.^[57] The student union demanded that the Minister of Universities establish more measures to assure that face-to-face education is safe including, but by no means limited to, more teachers and smaller groups.^[58]

Conclusions:

This paper has indicated that COVID-19’s impact on European Higher Education has been significant. The biggest challenge that universities and authorities needed to address was online learning. Training teachers to deliver online classes and enhance the students’ digital skills proved to be a difficult task. In spite of this, one of the consequences of the pandemic and subsequent lockdown was the development of digital skills in the university sector and the increased use of technology in learning. The table presented below provides a summary of students’ perception of how their respective universities dealt with the pandemic:

Student perception of online learning	Germany	France	Spain
Were there any complaints?	None	Complained through unions and the media	Complained through unions and the media
Resources to combat learning losses	Students perceived they had resources.	Lack of resources	Lack of resources
Support for disadvantaged students	Prepared to support disadvantaged students.	Lack of support for disadvantaged students	Lack of support for disadvantaged students
Hygienic measures	No issues were raised.	Lack of hygienic measures	Lack of hygienic measures
Resources to implement online classes	Prepared to implement online classes but they had to deal with concerns about privacy.[59] As a matter of fact, 24,6% of Germans think that technology solves more problems than it causes.[60]	Lack of means to follow online classes	Not every university had the means to implement online classes.

Prior to the pandemic, Germany already had a fully online university, Fern Universität Hagen, one that offers a wide variety of Bachelor’s degrees and Master’s degrees online. They also provide all of the course material online and more importantly, they are able to send the course materials anywhere in the world. Before the pandemic, in order to attract international students, Germany had already implemented online courses and hybrid methods of study. As a consequence, they may be the best prepared for this challenge.

Overall, this paper has stressed that strengthening online learning should be a priority for Governments and Ministries of Education. What is more, hybrid teaching should be implemented for the benefit of students’ mental health and to encourage students’ practical skills:students need to socialise with their peers and their teachers. The lack of technological resources and skills should be addressed. The European Commission stresses the importance of both the improvement of digital skills  for both students and teachers and encourages greater communication between them, to allow student voices to be heard and changes to be implemented more quickly.

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Bordas, Wally. “Frédérique Vidal ‘Cette année, les départs  d’étudiants à l’étranger on baissé de 20%.”‘”Le Figaro Étudiant 14/10/2020. Retrieved from https://etudiant.lefigaro.fr/article/frederique-vidal-cette-annee-les-departs-d-etudiants-a-l-etranger-ont-baisse-de-20_955f84a4-0e1e-11eb-a3bd-83472702286b/

Ministerio de Universidades. “El Ministerio de Universidades duplica su presupuesto del cual un 97% se invertira en programas con impacto directo en la ciudadania.” Ministerio de Ciencia en Innovación 30/10/2020. Retrieved from https://www.ciencia.gob.es/portal/site/MICINN/menuitem.edc7f2029a2be27d7010721001432ea0/?vgnextoid=2f1f397e57975710VgnVCM1000001d04140aRCRD&vgnextchannel=7cfa38c5ad6c4610VgnVCM1000001d04140aRCRD

Agencia EFE. “Las universidades seguirán un modelo mixto con clases presenciales y ‘online’.”EFE 20/08/2020. Retrieved from https://www.efe.com/efe/espana/sociedad/las-universidades-seguiran-un-modelo-mixto-con-clases-presenciales-y-online/10004-4323847

 

Meneses, N. “La universidad, ante en reto ‘online’ del coronavirus.” El Pais 18/03/2020 Retrieved from https://elpais.com/economia/2020/03/18/actualidad/1584509500_279435.html

Agencia EFE. “‘El plan para el curso universitario combina clases presenciales y ‘online’.”EFE 11/06/2020. Retrieved from https://www.efe.com/efe/espana/sociedad/el-plan-para-curso-universitario-combina-clases-presenciales-y-online/10004-4268703

Carrel, P. “Where Europe’s most powerful economy is falling behind.” Reuters, 25/06/2020. Retrieved from  https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/germany-digital-gap/

Haberbusch, T. “Étudiants: cette fracture numérique que le confinement a relevée.” Campus Matin 25/06/2020. Retrieved from https://www.campusmatin.com/numerique/equipements-systemes-informations/cette-fracture-numerique-que-le-confinement-a-revelee.html

Weitze, M-D. “New study reveals what Germans think about technology.” National Academy of Science and Engineering 25/05/2020. Retrieved from https://en.acatech.de/allgemein/new-study-reveals-what-germans-think-about-technology/

OCDE. “Strengthening online learning when schools are closed: The role of families and teachers in supporting students during the COVID-19 crisis”. OCDE Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19) 24/09/2020. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/strengthening-online-learning-when-schools-are-closed-the-role-of-families-and-teachers-in-supporting-students-during-the-COVID-19-crisis-c4ecba6c/

European Commission. “Coronavirus: online learning resources.” European Commission: Education and Training. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/education/resources-and-tools/coronavirus-online-learning-resources_en

INE. ” Equipamiento y uso de TIC en los hogares. Año 2019.” Instituto Nacional de Estadística (2019). Retrieved from https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/categoria.htm?c=Estadistica_P&cid=1254735976151

 

Begisheva. A. “Six months of KfW Students Loan coronavirus aid: significant demand and high customer satisfaction”. KFW  11/06/2020 Retrieved from https://www.kfw.de/KfW-Group/Newsroom/Latest-News/Pressemitteilungen-Details_615872.html

Erudera College News. “75% of Students in Germany Have Part-Time Jobs, Survey Shows”. Erudera College News 22/ 10/2020 Retrieved from https://collegenews.org/75-of-students-in-germany-have-part-time-jobs-survey-shows/

Grasset, Cristina. “Estrategias de internacionalización y captación de estudiantes en tiempos de pandemia”. El blog de Studia XXI (2020).

Endnotes

^[1] Arnhold, N.; Ziegele, F.; Kivistö. J “Under pressure: COVID-19 and the funding of European high education”. World Bank blogs, June 2 (2020). Retrieved from https://blogs.worldbank.org/education/under-pressure-COVID-19-and-funding-european-higher-education

^[2] Gardner, M. “Government provides emergency loans to hard-up students”. University world news, 5 May 2020. Retrieved from https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20200505083318715

^[3] Begisheva. A. “Six months of KfW Students Loan coronavirus aid: significant demand and high customer satisfaction”. KFW  11/06/2020. Retrieved from https://www.kfw.de/KfW-Group/Newsroom/Latest-News/Pressemitteilungen-Details_615872.html

^[4] Stacey, V. “Germany gov offers COVID-19 grants and loans”. The Pie news, May 6 (2020a). Retrieved from https://thepienews.com/news/germany-government-offers-COVID-19-grants-and-loans/

^[5] Quinn, C. “Germany: barriers to COVID-19-financial support”. The Pie news, 04/10/2020. Retrieved from https://thepienews.com/news/germany-students-hit-barriers-to-COVID-19-financial-support/

^[6] Studying-in-Germany. “Germany offers assistance for students and academics due to coronavirus”. Studying in Germany blogs (2020). Retrieved from https://www.studying-in-germany.org/germany-to-offer-assistance-for-students-and-academics-due-to-coronavirus/

^[7] Gardner, M. “Government provides emergency loans to hard-up students”. University world news, 5 May 2020. Retrieved from https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20200505083318715

^[8] Kercher, J., Plasa, T. ” COVID-19 and the impact on international student mobility in Germany: Results of a DAAD survey conducted among international offices of German universities”. DAAD Working paper (2020).

^[9] Stacey, V. “Germany gov offers COVID-19 grants and loans”. The Pie news, May 6 (2020a). Retrieved from https://thepienews.com/news/germany-government-offers-COVID-19-grants-and-loans/

^[10] Kercher, J., Plasa, T. ” COVID-19 and the impact on international student mobility in Germany: Results of a DAAD survey conducted among international offices of German universities”. DAAD Working paper (2020).

^[11] Studying-in-Germany. “Germany offers assistance for students and academics due to coronavirus”. Studying in Germany blogs (2020). Retrieved from https://www.studying-in-germany.org/germany-to-offer-assistance-for-students-and-academics-due-to-coronavirus/

^[12]Stacey, V. “DAAD lays bare COVID-19 impact on mobility”. The Pie news, 07/06/2020b. Retrieved from https://thepienews.com/news/daad-survey-lays-bare-impact-of-COVID-on-student-mobility/

^[13] European Commission. “Erasmus+”. Coronavirus impact. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/resources/coronavirus-impact_en

^[14] Studying-in-Germany. “Germany offers assistance for students and academics due to coronavirus”. Studying in Germany blogs (2020). Retrieved from https://www.studying-in-germany.org/germany-to-offer-assistance-for-students-and-academics-due-to-coronavirus/

^[15] Douglas, E. “Foreign students on online courses are denied visas to Germany”. DW, 14/08/2020. Retrieved from https://www.dw.com/en/coronavirus-foreign-students-on-online-courses-are-denied-visas-to-germany/a-54567800

^[16] Dick, W. “German universities juggle health and learning in coronavirus pandemic”. DW, 7/9/2020. Retrieved fromhttps://www.dw.com/en/german-universities-juggle-health-and-learning-in-coronavirus-pandemic/a-54846059

^[17] Dick, W. “German universities juggle health and learning in coronavirus pandemic”. DW, 7/9/2020. Retrieved fromhttps://www.dw.com/en/german-universities-juggle-health-and-learning-in-coronavirus-pandemic/a-54846059

^[18] Studying-in-Germany. “Germany offers assistance for students and academics due to coronavirus”. Studying in Germany blogs (2020). Retrieved from https://www.studying-in-germany.org/germany-to-offer-assistance-for-students-and-academics-due-to-coronavirus/

^[19] Erudera College News. “75% of Students in Germany Have Part-Time Jobs, Survey Shows”. Erudera College News 22/ 10/2020. Retrieved from https://collegenews.org/75-of-students-in-germany-have-part-time-jobs-survey-shows/

^[20] LRK NRW.” Aktuelles”. Landesrektorenkonferenz der Universitäten. Retrieved from https://www.lrk-nrw.de/presse/aktuelles

^[21] LRK NRW.” Aktuelles”. Landesrektorenkonferenz der Universitäten. Retrieved from https://www.lrk-nrw.de/presse/aktuelles

^[22] European Students’ Union. “Looking into the next academic year through the recommendations of students”. European Students’ Union, 3/08/2020. Retrieved from https://www.esu-online.org/?policy=looking-into-the-next-academic-year-through-the-recommendations-from-students

^[23] European Students’ Union. “Looking into the next academic year through the recommendations of students”. European Students’ Union, 3/08/2020. Retrieved from https://www.esu-online.org/?policy=looking-into-the-next-academic-year-through-the-recommendations-from-students

^[24] Ouest-France” Coronavirus. 10 millions d’euros en plus pour aider les étudiants via les Crous” 31/3/2020. Retrieved from https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-10-millions-d-euros-en-plus-pour-aider-les-etudiants-les-crous-6796614

^[25] Ouest-France” Coronavirus. 10 millions d’euros en plus pour aider les étudiants via les Crous” 31/3/2020. Retrieved from https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-10-millions-d-euros-en-plus-pour-aider-les-etudiants-les-crous-6796614

^[26] Louis, JP. “Coronavirus: les jobs d’été, le nouvel obstacle pour les étudiants”. Les Echos Start, 1/06/2020. Retrieved from https://start.lesechos.fr/travailler-mieux/recrutements-entretiens/coronavirus-les-jobs-dete-nouvel-obstacle-pour-les-etudiants-1206976

^[27] Ouest-France” Coronavirus. 10 millions d’euros en plus pour aider les étudiants via les Crous” 31/3/2020. Retrieved from https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-10-millions-d-euros-en-plus-pour-aider-les-etudiants-les-crous-6796614

^[28] Université de Paris. ” Les dispositifs en faveur des étudiants à Paris”. Universités de Paris. Retrieved from https://u-paris.fr/des-dispositifs-en-faveur-des-etudiants-a-paris/

^[29] Morel, A.”‘Certains craignent de venir en France’:des nombreux étudiants étrangers seront absents pour la rentrée universitaire”. FranceInfo, 07/09/2020. Retrieved from  https://www.francetvinfo.fr/sante/maladie/coronavirus/certains-craignent-de-venir-en-france-de-nombreux-etudiants-etrangers-seront-absents-pour-la-rentree-universitaire_4096741.html

^[30] Morel, A.”‘Certains craignent de venir en France’:des nombreux étudiants étrangers seront absents pour la rentrée universitaire”. FranceInfo, 07/09/2020. Retrieved from  https://www.francetvinfo.fr/sante/maladie/coronavirus/certains-craignent-de-venir-en-france-de-nombreux-etudiants-etrangers-seront-absents-pour-la-rentree-universitaire_4096741.html

^[31] Université de Paris. ” Les dispositifs en faveur des étudiants à Paris”. Universités de Paris. Retrieved from https://u-paris.fr/des-dispositifs-en-faveur-des-etudiants-a-paris/

^[32] Université de Paris. ” Les dispositifs en faveur des étudiants à Paris”. Universités de Paris. Retrieved from https://u-paris.fr/des-dispositifs-en-faveur-des-etudiants-a-paris/

^[33] Bordas, Wally. “Frédérique Vidal ‘Cette année, les départs  d’étudiants à l’étranger on baissé de 20%.”‘”Le Figaro Étudiant 14/10/2020. Retrieved from https://etudiant.lefigaro.fr/article/frederique-vidal-cette-annee-les-departs-d-etudiants-a-l-etranger-ont-baisse-de-20_955f84a4-0e1e-11eb-a3bd-83472702286b/

^[34]  Corbier MC. “Coronavirus: universités et grandes écoles misent sur une rentrée de septembre ‘hybride'”. Les Echos, 14/05/2020. Retrieved from https://www.lesechos.fr/politique-societe/societe/coronavirus-universites-et-grandes-ecoles-misent-sur-une-rentree-de-septembre-hybride-1203053

^[35] Corbier MC. “Coronavirus: universités et grandes écoles misent sur une rentrée de septembre ‘hybride'”. Les Echos, 14/05/2020. Retrieved from https://www.lesechos.fr/politique-societe/societe/coronavirus-universites-et-grandes-ecoles-misent-sur-une-rentree-de-septembre-hybride-1203053; Petitdemange, A. “Coronavirus: comment va se dérouler la rentrée 2020 dans les universités?”. L’étudiant, 22/05/2020. Retrieved from https://www.letudiant.fr/etudes/fac/coronavirus-comment-va-se-derouler-la-rentree-2020-dans-les-universites.html

^[36] Corbier MC. “Coronavirus: universités et grandes écoles misent sur une rentrée de septembre ‘hybride'”. Les Echos, 14/05/2020. Retrieved from https://www.lesechos.fr/politique-societe/societe/coronavirus-universites-et-grandes-ecoles-misent-sur-une-rentree-de-septembre-hybride-1203053

Petitdemange, A. “Coronavirus: comment va se dérouler la rentrée 2020 dans les universités?”. L’étudiant, 22/05/2020. Retrieved from https://www.letudiant.fr/etudes/fac/coronavirus-comment-va-se-derouler-la-rentree-2020-dans-les-universites.html

^[37] Figaro Étudiant. “Trois étudiants sur dix ont eu des signes de détresse psychologique pendant le confinement”. Le Figaro étudiant, 22/07/2020. Retrieved from https://etudiant.lefigaro.fr/article/trois-etudiants-sur-dix-ont-eu-des-signes-de-detresse-psychologique-pendant-le-confinement_4d099f76-cbf4-11ea-b49b-7a007283a908

^[38] Ministerio de Universidades. “Universidades y COVID-19”. Ministerio de Universidades. Retrieved from https://www.ciencia.gob.es/portal/site/MICINN/menuitem.8ce192e94ba842bea3bc811001432ea0/?vgnextoid=90a7653022801710VgnVCM1000001d04140aRCRD&vgnextchannel=ace15fbb878f0710VgnVCM1000001d04140aRCRD

^[39] CRUE. “Fondo Supera COVID-19”. CRUE Universidades españolas. Retrieved from https://www.crue.org/2020/10/videos-fondo-supera-COVID-19/

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^[41] Sanchez-Caballero, D. “El Gobierno eximirá de pagar la universidad a las familias beneficiarias del ingreso mínimo y sin derecho a beca”. eldiario.es (29/05/2020). Retrieved from https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/gobierno-eximira-universitarias-familias-derecho_1_6047076.html

^[42] Grasset, Cristina. “Estrategias de internacionalización y captación de estudiantes en tiempos de pandemia”. El blog de Studia XXI (2020).

^[43] Martínez, José Antonio, and C. Esparrells. “La financiación de las universidades públicas españolas: un instrumento para el cambio.” Alojado en www. portal. uned. es (2013).

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^[45] García, C.” El fondo COVID19 sigue sin llegar a la educación superior”. elEconomista, (8/10/2020). Retrieved from https://www.eleconomista.es/ecoaula/noticias/10813529/10/20/El-fondo-COVID19-sigue-sin-llegar-a-la-educacion-superior.html

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^[50] Meneses, N. “La universidad, ante en reto ‘online’ del coronavirus.” El Pais. 18/03/2020 Retrieved from https://elpais.com/economia/2020/03/18/actualidad/1584509500_279435.html

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^[54] Ministerio de Universidades. “Universidades y COVID-19”. Ministerio de Universidades. Retrieved from https://www.ciencia.gob.es/portal/site/MICINN/menuitem.8ce192e94ba842bea3bc811001432ea0/?vgnextoid=90a7653022801710VgnVCM1000001d04140aRCRD&vgnextchannel=ace15fbb878f0710VgnVCM1000001d04140aRCRD

^[55] Rodicio García, María Luisa, et al. “La brecha digital en estudiantes españoles ante la Crisis de la COVID-19.” Revista Internacional de Educación para la Justicia Social 9 3 (2020): 103-125.

^[56] López Honrubia, R. ; Nieto López, M. “Así vive la educación a distancia un grupo de alumnos universitarios”. The conversation, 2/04/2020. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/asi-vive-la-educacion-a-distancia-un-grupo-de-alumnos-universitarios-135182

^[57] BOE. Orden UNI/635/2020, de 7 de julio, por la que se fijan los precios públicos por los servicios académicos universitarios y otros servicios en la Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, para el curso 2020-2021. 10-07-2020. https://www.boe.es/eli/es/o/2020/07/07/uni635

^[58] Rodriguez Álvarez, S. “El otro regreso a las aulas: los universitarios temen que la pandemia consolide un modelo para las élites y sin presencialidad”. Infolibre, 30/08/2020. Retrieved from https://www.infolibre.es/noticias/politica/2020/08/31/los_estudiantes_temen_que_pandemia_rienda_suelta_una_universidad_para_elites_eminentemente_online_110402_1012.html

^[59] Carrel, P. “Where Europe’s most powerful economy is falling behind.” Reuters, 25/06/2020. Retrieved from  https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/germany-digital-gap/

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